Controlling Detection Time in Photodetectors

ABSTRACT

Example embodiments relate to controlling detection time in photodetectors. An example embodiment includes a device. The device includes a substrate. The device also includes a photodetector coupled to the substrate. The photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a light source that irradiates a top surface of the device. A depth of the substrate is at most 100 times a diffusion length of a minority carrier within the substrate so as to mitigate dark current arising from minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted from the light source.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation application of Non-Provisionalpatent application Ser. No. 16/656,891, filed with the U.S. Patent andTrademark Office on Oct. 18, 2019, which is a divisional application ofNon-Provisional patent application Ser. No. 15/939,619, filed with theU.S. Patent and Trademark Office on Mar. 29, 2018, which claims benefitof Provisional Patent Application No. 62/623,388, filed with the U.S.Patent and Trademark Office on Jan. 29, 2018, the contents of each ofwhich are hereby incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND

Unless otherwise indicated herein, the materials described in thissection are not prior art to the claims in this application and are notadmitted to be prior art by inclusion in this section.

Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) devices may estimate distances toobjects in a given environment. For example, an emitter subsystem of aLIDAR system may emit near-infrared light pulses, which may interactwith objects in the system's environment. At least a portion of thelight pulses may be redirected back toward the LIDAR (e.g., due toreflection or scattering) and detected by a receiver subsystem.Conventional receiver subsystems may include a plurality of detectorsand a corresponding controller configured to determine an arrival timeof the respective light pulses with high temporal resolution (e.g., ˜400ps). The distance between the LIDAR system and a given object may bedetermined based on a time of flight of the corresponding light pulsesthat interact with the given object.

The detectors of such a LIDAR system may include one or morephotodetectors. Such photodetectors may be especially sensitivedetectors (e.g., avalanche photodiodes (APDs)). In some examples, suchphotodetectors may even be capable of detecting single photons (e.g.,single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs)). In some cases, suchphotodetectors can be arranged (e.g., through an electrical connectionin series) into an array (e.g., as in a silicon photomultiplier (SiPM)).

SUMMARY

When using a sensitive photodetector to detect light, such as an APD ora SPAD, dark current can inhibit detection accuracy. As describedherein, a photodetector may be fabricated on a substrate. If minoritycarriers are generated in the substrate (e.g., due to photoexcitation)that have a sufficiently long lifetime and sufficiently high diffusioncoefficient, those minority carriers may diffuse to the detection regionof the photodetector after the light source has stopped irradiating thephotodetector. This can result in an output signal from thephotodetector even when the light source is no longer present (i.e., canresult in dark current). The present disclosure describes a plurality oftechniques that may ameliorate this possible issue. As examples, surfacedefects may be introduced that allow for recombination of electrons andholes, crystallographic defects may be introduced that allow forrecombination of electrons and holes, a depth of the substrate may belimited to a specified number of minority carrier diffusion lengths toreduce the distance minority carriers can travel before entering thejunction and to reduce the volume over which minority carriers can bephotoexcited (e.g., to reduce the number of minority carriers overall),a band structure of the substrate may be designed in a specific way(e.g., by introducing a potential barrier or a potential well),introducing an anti-reflective layer to permit photons from the lightsource to exit the substrate, polishing or planarizing a backside of thesubstrate to prevent reflections within the substrate of the light fromthe light source (e.g., to reduce the number of minority carriersgenerated due to photoexcitation by permitting photons to exit thesubstrate), and/or introducing a band-reject optical filter that filterslight of a wavelength corresponding to the light source (e.g., to reducethe number of minority carriers generated due to photoexcitation).

In one aspect, a device is provided. The device includes a substrate.The device also includes a photodetector coupled to the substrate. Thephotodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a light sourcethat irradiates a top surface of the device. The substrate includessurface defects on a second surface of the substrate. The surfacedefects allow for recombination of electrons and holes so as to mitigatedark current arising from minority carriers photoexcited in thesubstrate based on the light emitted from the light source.

In another aspect, a device is provided. The device includes asubstrate. The device also includes a photodetector coupled to thesubstrate. The photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from alight source that irradiates a top surface of the device. The substrateincludes crystallographic defects that allow for recombination ofelectrons and holes so as to mitigate dark current arising from minoritycarriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted fromthe light source.

In yet another aspect, a device is proved. The device includes asubstrate. The device also includes a photodetector coupled to thesubstrate. The photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from alight source that irradiates a top surface of the device. A depth of thesubstrate is at most 100 times a diffusion length of a minority carrierwithin the substrate so as to mitigate dark current arising fromminority carriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the lightemitted from the light source.

In still another aspect, a device is provided. The device includes asubstrate. The device also includes a photodetector coupled to thesubstrate. The photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from alight source that irradiates a top surface of the device. The device hasa band structure based on a material composition of the substrate andthe photodetector. The band structure is configured to mitigate darkcurrent arising from minority carriers photoexcited in the substratebased on the light emitted from the light source.

In a further aspect, a device is provided. The device includes asubstrate. The device also includes a photodetector coupled to thesubstrate. The photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from alight source that irradiates a top surface of the device. Further, thedevice includes an anti-reflective layer coupled to a second surface ofthe substrate. The anti-reflective layer is configured to couple lightpassing through the substrate to an exterior of the device, therebypreventing reflections within the substrate of the light emitted fromthe light source so as to reduce minority carrier photoexcitation in thesubstrate based on the light emitted from the light source, so as tomitigate dark current arising from minority carriers photoexcited in thesubstrate based on the light emitted from the light source.

In even yet another aspect, a device is provided. The device includes asubstrate. The device also includes a photodetector coupled to thesubstrate. The photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from alight source that irradiates a top surface of the device. A secondsurface of the substrate is polished or planarized, thereby preventingreflections within the substrate of the light emitted from the lightsource so as to reduce minority carrier photoexcitation in the substratebased on the light emitted from the light source, thereby mitigatingdark current arising from minority carriers photoexcited in thesubstrate based on the light emitted from the light source.

In yet a further aspect, a device is provided. The device includes asubstrate. The device also includes a photodetector coupled to thesubstrate. Further, the device includes a band-reject optical filter.The photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a lightsource that irradiates a top surface of the device. Light from the lightsource that irradiates the top surface of the device is transmittedthrough the band-reject optical filter. The band-reject optical filteris configured to reduce intensity of one or more wavelengths of thelight emitted from the light source, so as to reduce minority carrierphotoexcitation in the substrate based on the light emitted from thelight source, thereby mitigating dark current arising from minoritycarriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted fromthe light source.

In one more aspect, a device is provided. The device includes asubstrate. The device also includes a photodetector coupled to thesubstrate. Further, the device includes a non-linear optical absorber.The photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a lightsource that irradiates a top surface of the device. Light from the lightsource that irradiates the top surface of the device is transmittedthrough the non-linear optical absorber

In still yet another further aspect, a method is provided. The methodincludes providing a device. The device includes a substrate. The devicealso includes a photodetector coupled to the substrate. Thephotodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a light sourcethat irradiates a top surface of the device. The method also includesproviding light from the light source. Further, the method includesmitigating dark current arising from minority carriers photoexcited inthe substrate based on the light emitted from the light source. Thenon-linear optical absorber is configured to reduce intensity of one ormore wavelengths of the light emitted from the light source that are ator above a threshold power level, so as to reduce minority carrierphotoexcitation in the substrate based on the light emitted from thelight source, thereby mitigating dark current arising from minoritycarriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted fromthe light source

In even yet another further aspect, a method of manufacture is provided.The method includes providing a substrate. The method also includesforming a photodetector within or on the substrate. The photodetector isarranged to detect light emitted from a light source that irradiates atop surface of the photodetector. The method also includes performing aprocessing step that mitigates dark current arising from minoritycarriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted fromthe light source.

In an additional aspect, a system is provided. The system includes ameans for providing a device. The device includes a substrate. Thedevice also includes a photodetector coupled to the substrate. Thephotodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a light sourcethat irradiates a top surface of the device. The system also includes ameans for providing light from the light source. Further, the systemincludes a means for mitigating dark current arising from minoritycarriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted fromthe light source.

In yet another additional aspect, a system for manufacture is provided.The system includes a means for providing a substrate. The system alsoincludes a means for forming a photodetector within or on the substrate.The photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a lightsource that irradiates a top surface of the photodetector. Further, thesystem includes a means for performing a processing step that mitigatesdark current arising from minority carriers photoexcited in thesubstrate based on the light emitted from the light source.

These as well as other aspects, advantages, and alternatives will becomeapparent to those of ordinary skill in the art by reading the followingdetailed description, with reference, where appropriate, to theaccompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a schematic illustration of a system, according to exampleembodiments.

FIG. 1B is a schematic illustration of a system, according to exampleembodiments.

FIG. 2A is a schematic illustration of a system, according to exampleembodiments.

FIG. 2B is a plot of an illumination event of a device or a system,according to example embodiments.

FIG. 3A is an illustration of a device, according to exampleembodiments.

FIG. 3B is a band diagram of the device illustrated in FIG. 3A,according to example embodiments.

FIG. 4 is an illustration of a device, according to example embodiments.

FIG. 5 is an illustration of a device, according to example embodiments.

FIG. 6 is an illustration of a device, according to example embodiments.

FIG. 7A is an illustration of a device, according to exampleembodiments.

FIG. 7B is a band diagram of the device illustrated in FIG. 7A,according to example embodiments.

FIG. 8A is an illustration of a device, according to exampleembodiments.

FIG. 8B is a band diagram of the device illustrated in FIG. 8A,according to example embodiments.

FIG. 9A is an illustration of a device, according to exampleembodiments.

FIG. 9B is a band diagram of the device illustrated in FIG. 9A,according to example embodiments.

FIG. 9C is a plot of optical absorption with respect to depth of thedevice illustrated in FIG. 9A having the band diagram illustrated inFIG. 9B, according to example embodiments.

FIG. 10 is an illustration of a device, according to exampleembodiments.

FIG. 11A is a band diagram of a device having a potential barrier,according to example embodiments.

FIG. 11B is a band diagram of a device having a potential well,according to example embodiments.

FIG. 12 is a flowchart diagram illustrating a method, according toexample embodiments.

FIG. 13 is a flowchart diagram illustrating a method, according toexample embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Example methods and systems are described herein. Any example embodimentor feature described herein is not necessarily to be construed aspreferred or advantageous over other embodiments or features. Theexample embodiments described herein are not meant to be limiting. Itwill be readily understood that certain aspects of the disclosed systemsand methods can be arranged and combined in a wide variety of differentconfigurations, all of which are contemplated herein.

Furthermore, the particular arrangements shown in the figures should notbe viewed as limiting. It should be understood that other embodimentsmight include more or less of each element shown in a given figure.Further, some of the illustrated elements may be combined or omitted.Yet further, an example embodiment may include elements that are notillustrated in the figures.

I. OVERVIEW

While operated in a Geiger mode, SiPMs, SPADs, and other types ofsensitive photodetectors can provide single-photon-level sensing. AGeiger mode, for example, may include a strong reverse bias condition ofa p-n junction in order to generate multiple carriers within a depletionregion for a single photoexcitation event (e.g., through avalanchebreakdown). However, because of the strong bias conditions, dark currentcan arise from thermally generated minority carriers that cascade intomeasurable numbers of minority carriers. In addition to thermallygenerated minority carriers, some minority carriers may be photoexcitedin a substrate of a device by photons that pass unabsorbed through thejunction and are absorbed in the substrate. “Dark current” may occurwhen a photodetector is outputting a signal, even after a light sourceis no longer irradiating the photodetector. This may alternatively andinterchangeably be referred to herein as “spurious current,” “spuriousoutput signals,” “dark counts,” or “an extended time decay constantassociated with a detection event.”

If minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate have a sufficientlylong diffusion length, those carriers can make it to the depletionregion of the device before recombining, which causes a cascade eventand eventually results in a detectable signal. Such a detectable signalmay exist significantly after the light source has ceased irradiatingthe device (e.g., tens of nanoseconds, hundreds of nanoseconds,microseconds, or tens of microseconds after the illumination event). Asan example, SiPMs may experience dark current with a long time decay(i.e., high associated time constant) in scenarios with relatively highlight levels (e.g., due to retroreflection of light from a light source,a feedback pulse from light scattered from a light source positionednear the sensitive photodetector, or an external light source thatinterferes with the photodetector). Because dark current generated byminority carriers photoexcited in the substrate can lead to spuriousoutput signals and/or an increased time constant corresponding to whenthe photodetector has returned to its resting state and can againproperly measure illumination events (i.e., the illumination event has aresponse signal with a “long tail”), a method of ameliorating,mitigating, or removing the dark current generated by minority carriersphotoexcited in the substrate could improve photodetector performance.Said a different way, methods of reducing a time constant associatedwith a detection event based on the illumination by the light source mayimprove photodetector performance.

Multiple methods, devices, systems, and designs are described herein tomitigate such a dark current. The strategies employed herein to mitigatethe dark current arising from minority carriers photoexcited in thesubstrate can be lumped into one or more of three main categories, whichinclude: (1) ensuring that carriers are only photoexcited relativelyclose to the depletion region of the photodetector junction and/orincreasing the rate at which minority carriers progress toward thejunction, so as to reduce the number of straggling minority carriersthat diffuse to the junction (i.e., increase the rate at which minoritycarriers are evacuated from the substrate); (2) preventing minoritycarriers that are photoexcited at a certain distance from the depletionregion from ever reaching the depletion region; and (3) reducing thenumber of minority carriers photoexcited in one or more regions of thedevice.

Some example techniques that fall into category (1) above include:thinning the substrate to reduce the maximum distance from the junctionat which photoexcitation can take place; engineering the design of theband structure near the junction to introduce an electric field thatincreases the drift current of minority carriers moving toward thedepletion region of the junction; and designing a band structure thatincludes one or more heterostructures, where the heterostructures limitthe absorption depth at a specified depth (e.g., by having a materialwith a band gap higher than the excitation energy at all depths greaterthan the specified absorption depth).

Some example techniques that fall into category (2) above include:introducing surface defects at a surface (e.g., a back surface or bottomsurface) of the substrate or edges of the substrate, such that minoritycarriers can more readily recombine using trap states (e.g., viatrap-assisted recombination), thereby reducing minority carrier lifetimeand limiting the diffusion length of the minority carriers; introducingcrystallographic defects in the bulk of the substrate, such thatminority carriers can more readily recombine using trap states (e.g.,via trap-assisted recombination), thereby reducing minority carrierlifetime and limiting the diffusion length of the minority carriers;modifying operating temperature in the substrate in order to reduce thediffusion constant of minority carriers (e.g., by reducing the minoritycarrier mobility), thereby limiting the diffusion length of the minoritycarriers; and introducing a potential barrier and/or a potential wellinto the band structure of the substrate to prevent diffusing minoritycarriers from reaching the junction.

Some example techniques that fall into category (3) above include:thinning the substrate to reduce the total volume over whichphotoexcitation can take place, thereby allowing fewer minority carriersto be photoexcited in the substrate; modifying characteristics of thelight source illuminating the device (e.g., illumination wavelength,illumination pulse frequency, illumination pulse duty cycle,illumination power, etc.) to modulate the amount of photoexcitationoccurring in the substrate; coupling an anti-reflective layer (e.g., aBragg grating, a quarter-wave optical layer, or an index-matched,passive substrate) to a surface (e.g., a back surface or bottom surface)of the substrate such that light more readily couples to an exterior ofthe substrate, thereby preventing internal reflections of light withoutthe substrate and reducing the number of photoexcited minority carriers;and optically coupling a band-reject optical filter to the top of thephotodetector in order to reduce intensity of one or more wavelengths oflight entering the photodetector, thereby reducing the amount ofminority carriers that are photoexcited at that wavelength.

II. EXAMPLE SYSTEMS

FIG. 1A illustrates a system 100, according to example embodiments. Thesystem 100 includes a plurality of single-photon photodetectors 110 thatis coupled to a substrate 102. The plurality of single-photonphotodetectors 110 includes a plurality of photodetectors 112. Whiledescribed as “a plurality single-photon photodetectors 110,” it isunderstood that, in other embodiments, photodetectors that might not benormally capable of actual “single-photon” detection could be used. Insome embodiments, the plurality of single-photon photodetectors 110coupled to the substrate 102 may represent a SiPM. Each photodetector112 may be the same or different in various embodiments. For example,some photodetectors 112 may be APDs while other photodetectors areSPADs. In still other embodiments, one or more of the photodetectors 112may be a p-type-intrinsic-n-type (PIN) photodiode detector. Otherphotodetectors are also possible and contemplated herein. Further, inalternative embodiments, the system 100 may only include a singlephotodetector 112 on the substrate 102, rather than the plurality ofsingle-photon photodetectors 110.

In some embodiments, the substrate 102 may include a first surface. Insuch embodiments, the first surface could be disposed along a primaryplane of the substrate 102.

The plurality of single-photon photodetectors 110 could be coupled tothe first surface. For example, the plurality of single-photonphotodetectors 110 could be disposed in a side-by-side arrangement onthe same surface of the substrate 102 (e.g., in an array).

In another embodiment, at least a portion of detectors of the pluralityof single-photon photodetectors 110 could be arranged along the firstsurface and connected electrically in series so as to form a seriesphotodetector arrangement. Alternatively, the plurality of single-photonphotodetectors 110 could be arranged along the first surface andconnected electrically in parallel so as to form a parallelphotodetector arrangement. In other embodiments, the plurality ofsingle-photon photodetectors 110 could be disposed in other arrangementsand/or coupled to different surfaces of the substrate 102 (e.g.,multiple photodetectors 112 could be coupled to an upper surface of oneanother, e.g., in a daisy-chain arrangement, so as to form a stackedphotodetector arrangement).

Yet further, while examples described herein relate to the substrate102, it will be understood that other embodiments could include therespective detectors arranged on two or more substrates. For instance,half of the plurality of single-photon photodetectors 110 could bearranged along a surface of a first substrate and the remaining half ofthe plurality of single-photon photodetectors 110 could be arrangedalong a surface of a second substrate. Other detector arrangements thatinclude more than one substrate are possible and contemplated herein.

In some embodiments, the plurality of single-photon photodetectors 110are arranged to detect light from a field of view. In an exampleembodiment, the system 100 includes imaging optics 142 (e.g., mirrors,filters, and/or lenses). In such embodiments, the plurality ofsingle-photon photodetectors 110 may detect light from the shared fieldof view by way of the imaging optics 142.

In some embodiments, the system 100 includes photodetector outputcircuitry 128. The plurality of single-photon photodetectors 110 may becoupled to the photodetector output circuitry 128.

The system 100 may also include a logic unit 130. The logic unit 130may, in some embodiments, make determinations about operating conditionsof the plurality of single-photon photodetectors 110 (e.g., whether tooperate the plurality of single-photon photodetectors 110 in a series ora parallel arrangement or how to bias one or more of the photodetectors112).

In some embodiments, the system 100 includes an exposure meter 140. Theexposure meter 140 may be configured to provide information indicativeof a lighting condition to the logic unit 130.

In some example embodiments, the system 100 may include a plurality oflight sources 144. The plurality of light sources 144 may include lasersor optical fiber amplifiers, although other types of light sources arealso contemplated. Other amounts and/or arrangements of light sourcesare possible and contemplated.

The system 100 additionally includes a controller 150. In someembodiments, the controller 150 may include some or all of thefunctionality of logic unit 130. The controller 150 includes at leastone processor 152 and a memory 154. The at least one processor 152 mayinclude, for instance, an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)or a field-programmable gate array (FPGA). Other types of processors,computers, or devices configured to carry out software instructions arecontemplated herein. The memory 154 may include a non-transitorycomputer-readable medium, such as, but not limited to, read-only memory(ROM), programmable read-only memory (PROM), erasable programmableread-only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read-onlymemory (EEPROM), non-volatile random-access memory (e.g., flash memory),a solid state drive (SSD), a hard disk drive (HDD), a Compact Disc (CD),a Digital Video Disk (DVD), a digital tape, read/write (R/W) CDs, R/WDVDs, etc.

The at least one processor 152 is configured to execute programinstructions stored in the memory 154 so as to carry out operations. Insome embodiments, the operations include receiving a photodetectorsignal from the plurality of single-photon photodetectors 110. In someembodiments, the photodetector signal may be indicative of light fromthe field of view detected by the single-photon photodetectors 110. Insome embodiments, the operations may also include determining anintensity of light in the field of view based on the photodetectorsignal.

In some embodiments, the operations may further include receivinginformation indicative of an exposure condition of at least a portion ofthe field of view. For example, the exposure meter 140 may provideinformation about the exposure condition.

The controller 150 may include a computer disposed on a vehicle, anexternal computer, or a mobile computing platform, such as a smartphone,tablet device, personal computer, wearable device, etc. Additionally oralternatively, the controller 150 may include, or be connected to, aremotely-located computer system, such as a cloud server. In an exampleembodiment, the controller 150 may be configured to carry out some orall method blocks or steps described herein.

Further, in some embodiments, the controller 150 may executeinstructions to modify operation of one or more of the photodetectors112 in order to mitigate dark current occurring within the respectivephotodetectors 112. For example, the operations may include moving aband-reject optical filter over one or more photodetectors 112 using apiezoelectric or electric stage. Additionally or alternatively, theoperations may include modifying the rejected wavelength(s) or theintensity reduction of such a band-reject optical filter.

In example embodiments involving the plurality of light sources 144, theoperations may include causing the plurality of light sources 144 toemit light (e.g., within the infrared (IR) or near infrared (NIR)) intoan external environment of the system so as to interact with objects inthe external environment to provide reflected light. The light detectedfrom the shared field of view may include at least a portion of thereflected light. In such scenarios, the system 100 includes at least aportion of a light detection and ranging (LIDAR) system. The LIDARsystem may be configured to provide information (e.g., point cloud data)about one or more objects (e.g., location, shape, etc.) in the externalenvironment. While some described embodiments include several lightsources, other embodiments contemplated herein may include a singlelight source.

In an example embodiment, the LIDAR system could provide point cloudinformation, object information, mapping information, or otherinformation to a vehicle. The vehicle could be a semi- orfully-automated vehicle. For example, the vehicle could be aself-driving car or an autonomous drone, an autonomous truck, anautonomous boat, an autonomous submarine, an autonomous helicopter, oran autonomous robot. Other types of vehicles are contemplated herein.

System 100 may include a communication interface 146. The communicationinterface 146 may be configured to provide a communication link betweenvarious elements of system 100 such as the controller 150, the pluralityof single-photon photodetectors 110, the logic unit 130, one or morecomputing networks, and/or other vehicles.

The communication interface 146 could be, for example, a systemconfigured to provide wired or wireless communication between one ormore other vehicles, sensors, or other elements described herein, eitherdirectly or via a communication network. To this end, the communicationinterface 146 may include an antenna and a chipset for communicatingwith the other vehicles, sensors, servers, or other entities eitherdirectly or via the communication network. The chipset or communicationinterface 146 in general may be arranged to communicate according to oneor more types of wireless communication (e.g., protocols) such asBLUETOOTH, BLUETOOTH LOW ENERGY (BLE), communication protocols describedin IEEE 802.11 (including any IEEE 802.11 revisions) (e.g., WIFI),cellular technology (e.g., GSM, CDMA, UMTS, EV-DO, WiMAX, or LTE),communication protocols described in IEEE 802.15.4 (e.g., ZIGBEE),dedicated short range communications (DSRC), and radio frequencyidentification (RFID) communications, among other possibilities. Thecommunication interface 146 may take other forms as well.

FIG. 1B illustrates a system 160, according to an example embodiment.System 160 may include some, or all, of the elements of system 100, asillustrated and described with reference to FIG. 1A. For example, system160 may include an emitter subsystem 170, which may include theplurality of light sources 144 and a light source controller 172. Theplurality of light sources 144 may be controlled by the light sourcecontroller 172.

System 160 also includes a receiver subsystem 180. The receiversubsystem 180 may include the plurality of single-photon photodetectors110. Further, the photodetectors 112 of the plurality of single-photonphotodetectors 110 could be coupled to the photodetector outputcircuitry 128.

The receiver subsystem 180 also includes the logic unit 130.

The emitter subsystem 170 and the receiver subsystem 180 may be coupledto the imaging optics 142. In such a scenario, the plurality of lightsources 144 may be configured to emit light pulses 162 into an externalenvironment 164 of the system 160. The light pulses 162 may interactwith objects in the external environment 164. For example, the lightpulses 162 may be reflected by the objects, at least in part, backtowards the receiver subsystem 180 as reflected light 166. The reflectedlight 166 may be received by the receiver subsystem 180 via the imagingoptics 142.

FIG. 2A illustrates a system 200, according to example embodiments.System 200 may include elements that are similar or identical to systems100 and 160 as illustrated and described with reference to FIGS. 1A and1B. The system 200 includes a substrate 202. The substrate 202 may becoupled to a plurality of single-photon photodetectors 210. In suchembodiments, the plurality of single-photon photodetectors 210 mayinclude multiple photodetectors 212. For example, the photodetectors 212could be disposed in a rectangular array along a first surface (e.g., atop surface) of the substrate 202. Other arrangements of thephotodetectors 212 are also possible.

In an example embodiment, the respective photodetectors 212 of theplurality of single-photon photodetectors 210 could be coupled tophotodetector output circuitry 228 (e.g., a readout integrated circuit(ROIC)) on a second substrate 204 by way of respective arrays ofthrough-wafer vias 223 and bump bonds 229. Other types ofelectrically-conductive or wireless connections are contemplated herein.

FIG. 2B is a plot 240 of an illumination event of a device or a system.For example, the plot 240 may represent an illumination event of thesystem 200 illustrated in FIG. 2A, the plurality of single-photonphotodetectors 210 illustrated in FIG. 2A, or one of the photodetectors212 illustrated in FIG. 2A.

As illustrated by the tail in FIG. 2B, after the illumination eventoccurs, the time decay of the output signal of the device or system maylast for a relatively long time compared to the length of theillumination event (i.e., the decay process may have a relatively highassociated time constant). As described above, this may be attributed todark current arising from thermally generated carriers and/or carriersphotoexcited in a bulk region (e.g., an undepleted bulk region) of thesubstrate that take a relatively long time to reach the junction of thephotodetector.

Because the output signal does not necessarily rapidly decay to itsresting state, the output signal at times much after the actualillumination event might be mistaken for additional illumination events(e.g., based on a threshold set in a computing device). Further, due toprevious high intensity illumination and extended dark current, anoutput signal of the photodetector (e.g., the SiPM) may have acompressed amplitude. Such a compressed amplitude might lead toambiguity regarding the raw intensity of the present illumination eventwithin the output signal. In an effort to avoid mistaken determinationsof illumination events and/or illumination intensities based on theoutput signal, the system or device might have a time delay (i.e., alag) introduced between illumination events to ensure that the system ordevice returns to its resting state before another illuminationmeasurement is taken. Even if such a technique may help disambiguateillumination events, it has the potential drawback of limiting the rateat which measurements can be taken by the device or system. Thus, amethod of quenching or permanently reducing the time constant associatedwith the decay can allow for an increased sensing rate. Such anincreased sensing rate could be useful in a variety of applications thatemploy photodetectors (e.g., autonomous vehicle navigation using LIDAR,object detection and avoidance using LIDAR, other LIDAR applications,and/or optical communications).

III. EXAMPLE DEVICES

FIG. 3A is an illustration of a device, according to exampleembodiments. The device may corresponding to one or more of thephotodetectors 212 illustrated in FIG. 2A, for example. The deviceillustrated in FIG. 3A may be configured to detect light (e.g., a singlephoton), independent of whether the device is a component of a largersystem (e.g., a SiPM, such as the system 200 illustrated in FIG. 2A).Notwithstanding, as shown and described with reference to FIG. 2A, thesystem 200 may collectively also be configured to detect light (e.g., asingle photon). It is understood that the device illustrated in FIG. 3A,and all other devices and systems described herein, can be fabricatedand/or modified by any fabrication techniques now known or laterdiscovered (e.g., the device in FIG. 3A can be fabricated usingsemiconductor processing steps such as photolithography, ionimplantation, oxidation, etching, chemical deposition, etc.). Further,the device illustrated in FIG. 3A may be an example photodetector priorto or without any dark current mitigation techniques or modificationsbeing used.

The photodetector 212 may include an anode 302, a cathode 304, a firstsubstrate portion 312, a second substrate portion 314, a p-n junction(formed between a heavily doped p-side 322 and a heavily doped n-side324), guardring regions 332, and a protective layer 342. As illustrated,a depth direction (x) within the photodetector 212 is represented by adashed line, with higher values of x corresponding to portions of thephotodetector 212 nearer to a “top surface” of the photodetector 212.

The anode 302 may be used, in conjunction with the cathode 304, to biasthe photodetector 212. For example, in embodiments where, as in FIG. 3A,the junction of the device is a p-n junction (rather than an n-pjunction), a negative voltage may be applied at the anode 302. Inalternate embodiments (e.g., embodiments where the junction of thedevice is an n-p junction) reference numeral 302 may instead be acathode and may instead have a positive voltage applied thereto. Thevoltage difference between the anode 302 and the cathode 304 may dropacross the junction to establish a negative operating bias across thejunction. For example, the negative bias may be such that the junctionis operating in an avalanche breakdown regime (e.g., in a Geiger mode ora linear-mode). In some embodiments, the negative bias may be between−10 Volts and −20 Volts, between −20 Volts and −50 Volts, between −50Volts and −100 Volts, between −100 Volts and −150 Volts, between −150Volts and −200 Volts, between −200 Volts and −250 Volts, or between −250Volts and −300 Volts, for instance.

The anode 302 may be shared by multiple devices (e.g., multiplephotodetectors within an array may share a common anode). In otherembodiments, individual anodes 302 (i.e., one anode 302 per device) maybe used. As illustrated, the anode 302 may include a bonding pad towhich one or more electrical leads or interconnects could beelectrically coupled (e.g., soldered). Such a bonding pad may be definedon a bottom side of the photodetector 212, as illustrated in FIG. 3A. Inalternate embodiments, the anode 302 may include a bonding pad definedon a top surface of the photodetector 212. Such a top-surface bondingpad may connect to a bottom side of the photodetector 212 (e.g., bottomside of the substrate) through a via defined within the layers of thephotodetector 212. Such a via may be a metallic (e.g., a gold, silver,copper, platinum, palladium, tungsten, aluminum, titanium, nickel,molybdenum, or tantalum) via or a heavily doped (e.g., degeneratelydoped) semiconductor via.

The cathode 304, as described above, may be used, in conjunction withthe anode 302, to bias the photodetector 212. For example, inembodiments where, as in FIG. 3A, the junction of the device is a p-njunction (rather than an n-p junction), a positive voltage may beapplied at the cathode 304. In alternate embodiments (e.g., embodimentswhere the junction of the device is an n-p junction) reference numeral304 may instead be an anode and may instead have a negative voltageapplied thereto.

The cathode 304 may be shared by multiple devices (e.g., multiplephotodetectors within an array may share a common cathode). In otherembodiments, individual cathodes 304 (i.e., one cathode 304 per device)may be used. As illustrated, the cathode 304 may include a bonding padto which one or more electrical leads or interconnects could beelectrically coupled (e.g., soldered). Such a bonding pad may be definedon a top side of the photodetector 212, as illustrated in FIG. 3A. Inalternate embodiments (e.g., embodiments where the photodetector 212 isflip-chip bonded to an ROIC), the cathode 304 may include a bonding paddefined on a bottom surface of the photodetector 212. Such abottom-surface bonding pad may connect to a top side of thephotodetector 212 (e.g., n-doped side of the p-n junction) through a viadefined within the layers of the photodetector 212. Such a via may be ametallic (e.g., a gold, silver, copper, platinum, palladium, tungsten,aluminum, titanium, nickel, molybdenum, or tantalum) via or a heavilydoped (e.g., degenerately doped) semiconductor via.

In some embodiments, there may be a quenching resistor electricallycoupled (e.g., in a series arrangement) to the anode 302 or the cathode304 (e.g., depending on orientation of the p-n junction). The quenchingresistor may accelerate the rate at which the photodetector returns toGeiger mode after an illumination event occurs.

Collectively, the first substrate portion 312 and the second substrateportion 314 may be referred to as “the substrate.” In some embodiments,there may not be a first substrate portion 312 or a second substrateportion 314. For example, in some embodiments, the substrate might beuniformly doped throughout, in which case the entirety of the substratemay be uniform. Further, the first substrate portion 312 and the secondsubstrate portion 314 (as well as possibly the anode 302, the cathode304, the heavily doped p-side 322, the heavily doped n-side 324, theguardring regions 332, and/or the protective layer 342) may befabricated by selectively doping a semiconductor wafer (e.g., a siliconwafer). The separate regions of the photodetector 212 may be selectivelydefined/doped using a combination of photolithography and ionimplantation, for example.

The first substrate portion 312 may be doped with a p-type dopant. Forexample, the first substrate portion 312 may be doped with boron,aluminum, nitrogen, gallium, and/or indium. In alternate embodiments(e.g., embodiments having an n-doped substrate), the first substrateportion 312 may be doped with phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth,and/or lithium. In various embodiments, the first substrate portion 312may be doped with a concentration of between 10¹⁷ cm⁻³ and 10¹⁸ cm⁻³,between 10¹⁸ cm⁻³ and 10¹⁹ cm⁻³, between 10¹⁹ cm⁻³ and 10²⁰ cm⁻³, orbetween 10²⁰ cm⁻³ and 10²¹ cm⁻³.

The second substrate portion 314 may be doped with a p-type dopant. Forexample, the second substrate portion 314 may be doped with boron,aluminum, nitrogen, gallium, and/or indium. In alternate embodiments(e.g., embodiments having an n-doped substrate), the second substrateportion 314 may be doped with phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth,and/or lithium. In various embodiments, the second substrate portion 314may be doped with a concentration of between 10¹³ cm⁻³ and 10¹⁴ cm⁻³,between 10¹⁴ cm⁻³ and 10¹⁵ cm⁻³, between 10¹⁵ cm⁻³ and 10¹⁶ cm⁻³, orbetween 10¹⁶ cm⁻³ and 10¹⁷ cm⁻³.

The p-n junction (formed between the heavily doped p-side 322 and theheavily doped n-side 324) may be the location within the photodetector212 where minority carriers that are photoexcited are swept by anelectric field to an electrode of the photodetector 212 (e.g., thecathode 304 in FIG. 3A). For example, the p-n junction may include adepletion region (i.e., space charge region). The depletion region mayinclude an induced electric field which accelerates charged minoritycarriers to the electrode. Further, when negatively biased (e.g., in theGeiger-mode regime), minority carriers (e.g., photoexcited minoritycarriers) may generate additional minority carriers through avalanchebreakdown.

As illustrated in FIG. 3A, the heavily doped p-side 322 may be dopedwith a p-type dopant. For example, the heavily doped p-side 322 may bedoped with boron, aluminum, nitrogen, gallium, and/or indium. Inalternate embodiments, reference numeral 322 may instead correspond toan n-type semiconductor. In such embodiments, dopants such asphosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and/or lithium may be used. Invarious embodiments, the heavily doped p-side 322 may be doped with aconcentration of between 10¹⁷ cm⁻³ and 10¹⁸ cm⁻³, between 10¹⁸ cm⁻³ and10¹⁹ cm⁻³, between 10¹⁹ cm⁻³ and 10²⁰ cm⁻³, or between 10²⁰ cm⁻³ and10²¹ cm⁻³.

Likewise, as illustrated in FIG. 3A, the heavily doped n-side 324 may bedoped with an n-type dopant. For example, the heavily doped n-side 324may be doped with phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and/orlithium. In alternate embodiments, reference numeral 324 may insteadcorrespond to a p-type semiconductor. In such embodiments, dopants suchas boron, aluminum, nitrogen, gallium, and/or indium may be used. Invarious embodiments, the heavily doped n-side 324 may be doped with aconcentration of between 10¹⁷ cm⁻³ and 10¹⁸ cm⁻³, between 10¹⁸ cm⁻³ and10¹⁹ cm⁻³, between 10¹⁹ cm⁻³ and 10²⁰ cm⁻³, or between 10²⁰ cm⁻³ and10²¹ cm⁻³.

The guardring regions 332. In some embodiments, the guardring regions332 may be n-type (e.g., doped in the n+ regime). In alternateembodiments (e.g., wherein the p-n junction of the device is instead ann-p junction and the bulk semiconductor is n-type), the guardringregions 332 may be p-type (e.g., doped in the p+ regime). The guardringregions 332 may isolate the photodetector 212 from neighboringphotodetectors. Further, the guardring regions 332 may preventedge-breakdown from occurring. Still further, the guardring regions 332may be used to fine-tune a shape of the electric field near the p-njunction. In some embodiments, particularly embodiments only having asingle photodetector rather than an array of photodetectors, theguardring regions 332 might not be included. In addition to or insteadof the guardring regions 332, some embodiments may include opticalisolation trenches defined within the substrate.

The protective layer 342 may be included in the photodetector 212 toprotect the photodetector 212 from physical damage. In some embodiments,the protective layer 342 may have specifically designed opticalproperties. For example, in some embodiments, the protective layer 342may be sized such that it is approximately a quarter of a wavelengththick with respect to an operating wavelength of a light source and therefractive index of the protective layer 342. As such, the protectivelayer 342 may be λ/4n, where λ represents the operating wavelength (in avacuum) of the light source and n represents the refractive index of theprotective layer 342. For example, if an infrared light source with anoperating wavelength of 1.55 μm is being used, and the refractive indexof the protective layer 342 is 1.0, the protective layer 342 may be387.5 nm thick (1.55 μm/4). Likewise, if an infrared light source withan operating wavelength of 905 nm is being used, and the refractiveindex of the protective layer 342 is 1.0, the protective layer 342 maybe 226.25 nm thick (905 nm/4). Having a protective layer 342 that isapproximately a quarter of a wavelength thick may maximize transmissionof light into the photodetection region of the photodetector. Theprotective layer 342 may be designed to exhibit additional oralternative optical properties, as well.

In some embodiments, the protective layer 342 may include a materialthat is optically transparent for the operating wavelength of the lightsource. For example, the protective layer 342 may include SiO₂. In suchembodiments, the protective layer 342 may be grown on the photodetectorusing oxidation (e.g., within an oxidation furnace). It is understoodthat in other embodiments, the protective layer 342 may includeadditional or alternative materials.

As illustrated in the top view portion of FIG. 3B, in some embodiments,a packaging 350 may surround the photodetector 212. The packaging 350may be of a standardized package size. Such a standardized package sizemay enable multiple photodetectors 212 to be readily arranged into anarray.

Further, as illustrated, the packaging 350 may include a metallicinterconnect 352. As illustrated, the metallic interconnect 352 may beelectrically coupled to the cathode 304 of the photodetector 212. Inaddition, the metallic interconnect 352 may be used to make one or moreelectrical connections (e.g., series or parallel connections) with otherphotodetectors 212 (e.g., to form an array of photodetectors). Themetallic interconnect 352 may include gold, silver, copper, platinum,palladium, tungsten, aluminum, titanium, nickel, molybdenum, tantalum,silicides, salicides, or a heavily doped semiconductor (e.g., adegenerately doped semiconductor), in various embodiments. It isunderstood that, in other embodiments, alternative materials may be usedin addition to or instead of those previously listed for the metallicinterconnect 352.

FIG. 3B is a band diagram of the device illustrated in FIG. 3A,according to example embodiments. As indicated by the axis of FIG. 3B,regions nearer to a top surface of the photodetector 212 (i.e., regionswith higher x-values) are farther to the right of the band diagram. Thereference numerals above the band diagram indicate various regionswithin the photodetector 212 (e.g., the first substrate portion 312, thesecond substrate portion 314, the heavily doped p-side 322, and theheavily doped n-side 324). In addition, the dashed line represents aFermi level within the photodetector 212. Further, the vertical linesoverlaying the band diagram may define the various regions within thephotodetector 212 as well as junctions between disparate regions withinthe photodetector 212. The band diagram illustrated in FIG. 3B mayrepresent an equilibrium band diagram (as opposed to a band diagram ofthe photodetector 212 under forward or reverse bias). Additionally, thejunction between the heavily doped p-side 322 and the heavily dopedn-side 324 may be a depletion region of the p-n junction formed betweenthe heavily doped p-side 322 and the heavily doped n-side 324. Thisdepletion region may be used to accelerate minority carriers toward anelectrode such that generated (e.g., photoexcited) minority carrierscorrespond to a signal representing an amount photoexcitation. Further,when under reverse bias (e.g., Geiger mode bias conditions or avalanchebias conditions), the depletion region may produce a cascading event foreach minority carrier generated, such that multiple additional minoritycarriers are generated (e.g., via avalanche breakdown). This can lead toincreased sensitivity for the photodetector 212 (e.g., single-photonsensitivity).

In some embodiments, the doping between regions may be graded (e.g.,linearly graded, logarithmically graded, or exponentially graded). Forexample, when transitioning from a p+-doped region having a dopingconcentration of 10²⁰ cm⁻³ to a p-doped region having a dopingconcentration of 10¹⁶ cm⁻³, the concentration of the p-type dopant maybe varied logarithmically between 10²⁰ cm⁻³ and 10¹⁶ cm⁻³ with respectto depth. In alternate embodiments, the doping may be abruptlytransitioned from 10²⁰ cm⁻³ to 10¹⁶ cm⁻³.

Each of the various regions within the photodetector 212 may be made ofa single material (e.g., Si, Ge, GaAs, or any other semiconductormaterial). Further, as illustrated, the photodetector 212 band diagramhas a p+-type, p-type, p+-type, n+-type structure. In alternateembodiments, the photodetector 212 may instead have a uniform dopingthroughout the entirety of the substrate (e.g., the first substrateportion 312 and the second substrate portion 314 may have the samedopant concentration). In such embodiments, the band diagram may have ap+-type, n+-type structure or a p-type, p+type, n+-type structure. Stillfurther, rather than the first substrate portion 312 and/or the secondsubstrate portion 314 being p-doped, the first substrate portion 312and/or the second substrate portion 314 may be undoped (i.e., may be anintrinsic semiconductor). In such embodiments, the band diagram may havea p+-type, i-type, p+-type, n+-type structure; an i-type, p-type,p+-type, n+-type structure; or an i-type, p+-type, n+-type structure. Instill other embodiments, rather than a p-n junction, the photodetector212 may include an n-p junction. In such embodiments, the band diagrammay have an n+-type, n-type, n+-type, p+-type structure; an n-type,n+-type, p+-type structure; an n+-type, p+-type structure; an n+-type,i-type, n+-type, p+-type structure; an i-type, n-type, n+-type, p+-typestructure; or an i-type, n+-type, p+-type structure.

FIG. 4 is an illustration of a device 412, according to exampleembodiments. The device 412 may be analogous to the photodetector 212illustrated in FIG. 3A. As such, the device 412 may include an anode302, a cathode 304, a second substrate portion 314, a p-n junction(formed between a heavily doped p-side 322 and a heavily doped n-side324), guardring regions 332, and a protective layer 342. Each of thepreviously recited components may be substantially the same or identicalto the corresponding components shown and described with respect to FIG.3A.

However, unlike the photodetector 212 illustrated in FIG. 3A, the device412 includes a thin first substrate portion 402. Because the thin firstsubstrate portion 402 is less deep than the first substrate portion 312in the photodetector 212 of FIG. 3A, the thin first substrate portion402 may be less voluminous. As such, there may be a smaller absorptionregion within the substrate where optical absorption/photoexcitation canoccur. Thus, fewer minority carriers may be generated in the substrateof the device 412 when compared with the photodetector 212 illustratedin FIG. 3A, thereby mitigating the amount of dark current arising fromminority carriers photoexcited in the substrate of the device 412.Further, because the thin first substrate portion 402 is less deep thanthe first substrate portion 312, the maximum distance from the p-njunction at which absorption/photoexcitation can occur is reduced. Thus,any minority carriers that are photoexcited within the thin firstsubstrate portion 402 diffuse sufficiently quickly to the p-n junctionsuch that they do not contribute to the time delay between theillumination event and the output signal arising from the minoritycarriers.

In various embodiments, the thin first substrate portion 402 and/or thesubstrate (e.g., which includes both the thin first substrate portion402 and the second substrate portion 314) may be at most 100 times adiffusion length of a minority carrier within the substrate, at most 10times the diffusion length of the minority carrier within the substrate,at most 0.1 times the diffusion length of the minority carrier withinthe substrate, or at most 0.01 times the diffusion length of theminority carrier within the substrate. Additionally or alternatively, invarious embodiments, the thin first substrate portion 402 and/or thesubstrate (e.g., which includes both the thin first substrate portion402 and the second substrate portion 314) may be at most 1000 times anoptical absorption length of the substrate, at most 100 times theoptical absorption length of the substrate, at most 10 times the opticalabsorption length of the substrate, at most the optical absorptionlength of the substrate, at most 0.1 times the optical absorption lengthof the substrate, at most 0.01 times the optical absorption length ofthe substrate, or at most 10⁻³ times the optical absorption length ofthe substrate. Other lengths of the first substrate portion 402 and/orthe substrate relative to the optical absorption length of the substrateare also contemplated herein.

The thin first substrate portion 402 may be fabricated using a varietyof methods. In one embodiment, the thin first substrate portion 402 maybe fabricated by removing portions of the substrate in post-processing.For example, if the device 412 is flip-chip bonded on an ROIC (e.g.,such that the device 412 is configured to receive illumination from abottom side of the device, such as a backside of the substrate), aportion of the substrate may be removed (e.g., using chemical etching,such as wet etching or dry etching, or planarization) prior toapplying/coupling the anode 302 to the substrate.

In alternate embodiments, the thin first substrate portion 402 mayinstead be lightly doped or undoped. Still further, in addition to orinstead of having a thin first substrate portion 402, the device 412 mayalso include a thinner second substrate portion (e.g., the secondsubstrate portion 314 may have a smaller depth than illustrated in FIG.4, so as to further mitigate dark current arising from minority carriersphotoexcited in the substrate).

FIG. 5 is an illustration of a device 512, according to exampleembodiments. The device 512 may be analogous to the photodetector 212illustrated in FIG. 3A. As such, the device 512 may include an anode302, a cathode 304, a first substrate portion 312, a second substrateportion 314, a p-n junction (formed between a heavily doped p-side 322and a heavily doped n-side 324), guardring regions 332, and a protectivelayer 342. Each of the previously recited components may besubstantially the same or identical to the corresponding componentsshown and described with respect to FIG. 3A.

However, unlike the photodetector 212 illustrated in FIG. 3A, the device512 includes a band-reject optical filter 502. As illustrated, theband-reject optical filter 502 may overlay the protective layer 342.Alternatively, in some embodiments, the band-reject optical filter 502could be located between the protective layer 342 and the heavily dopedn-side 324. In some embodiments, the band-reject optical filter 502 maybe added to the device 512 in post-processing (e.g., the band-rejectoptical filter 502 may be retrofitted to a previously fabricatedphotodetector).

The band-reject optical filter 502 may be configured to reduce anintensity of one wavelength or a range of wavelengths. Such a wavelengthor range of wavelengths may correspond to wavelengths output by a lightsource (e.g., one of the plurality of light sources 144 in the emittersubsystem 170 as illustrated in FIG. 1B). For example, if the lightsource is a laser that emits light in the infrared portion of theelectromagnetic spectrum, the band-reject optical filter 502 may beconfigured to reduce an intensity of light having wavelengths within theinfrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. In this way, theintensity of light reaching the photodetector portion of the device 512,and ultimately the substrate, may be reduced. Thus, the amount ofphotoexcitation of minority carriers within the substrate based on thelight emitted from the light source may be reduced, thereby mitigatingdark current and reducing a time decay associated with the illuminationevent.

In addition to or instead of a band-reject optical filter, someembodiments may include other optical components used to reduceintensity of one or more wavelengths of light. For example, a beamsplitter (e.g., a half-silvered mirror) or a neutral-density (ND) filter(e.g., ND2 filter, ND4 filter, ND8 filter, ND16 filter, ND32 filter,ND64 filter, ND100 filter, ND128 filter, ND256 filter, ND400 filter,ND512 filter, ND1024 filter, ND2048 filter, ND4096 filter, ND6310filter, ND8192 filter, ND10000 filter, or ND100000 filter) could beused.

Additionally or alternatively, in some embodiments, a non-linear opticalmaterial (e.g., a non-linear optical absorber) may be included. Thenon-linear optical material may exhibit a non-linear optical responsefor one or more incoming wavelengths, for example. The non-linearoptical material may also include a threshold power level (e.g., definedfor at least one of the one or more incoming wavelengths at which thenon-linear optical material exhibits the non-linear optical response) atwhich the non-linear optical material absorbs incoming photons. Forexample, when incoming light is irradiating the device with anassociated power at or above the threshold power level, the non-linearoptical material may reduce the intensity of the incoming light.However, when the incoming light is irradiating the device with anassociated power below the threshold power level, the non-linear opticalmaterial may not reduce the intensity of the incoming light. Such anon-linear optical material may be between 1 nm and 10 nm in thickness,between 10 nm and 100 nm in thickness, between 100 nm and 1 μm inthickness, between 1 μm and 10 μm in thickness, between 10 μm and 100 μmin thickness, between 100 μm and 1 mm in thickness, between 1 mm and 1cm in thickness, or between 1 cm and 10 cm in thickness, in variousembodiments.

FIG. 6 is an illustration of a device 612, according to exampleembodiments. The device 612 may be analogous to the photodetector 212illustrated in FIG. 3A. As such, the device 612 may include a cathode304, a first substrate portion 312, a second substrate portion 314, ap-n junction (formed between a heavily doped p-side 322 and a heavilydoped n-side 324), guardring regions 332, and a protective layer 342.Each of the previously recited components may be substantially the sameor identical to the corresponding components shown and described withrespect to FIG. 3A.

However, unlike the photodetector 212 illustrated in FIG. 3A, the device612 may include a modified anode 602 and an anti-reflective layer 604.The modified anode 602 may have a reduced size, as illustrated. Similarto the cathode 304, the modified anode 602 may be sized such that lightcan be transmitted around the modified anode 602. Unlike the anode 302illustrated in FIG. 3A, which may completely cover an entire bottomsurface of the first substrate portion 312, the modified anode 602 mayonly cover a portion of the bottom surface of the first substrateportion 312.

The anti-reflective layer 604 may be disposed adjacent to the modifiedanode 602. Additionally or alternatively, the anti-reflective layer 604may be coupled to the substrate (e.g., coupled to the first substrateportion 312). The anti-reflective layer 604 may aid in shepherdingphotons that passed unabsorbed through the substrate out of the device612 (e.g., may couple light passing through the substrate to an exteriorof the device 612). In other words, the anti-reflective layer 604 mayprevent unabsorbed light from undergoing internal reflections (eitherfrom a surface of the substrate and/or a surface of an electrode), suchthat the light is not reflected back into the interior of the device612. Because the anti-reflective layer 604 reduces the amount of timelight is travelling through the substrate of the device 612, the timeand distance over which optical absorption can occur is also reduced,thereby reducing the probability of photoexcitation and the time scaleover which photoexcitation occurs. Thus, the number of minority carriersphotoexcited in the substrate will be reduced overall. Because thenumber of photoexcited minority carriers is reduced, the dark currentarising from such minority carriers may be mitigated.

FIG. 7A is an illustration of a device 712, according to exampleembodiments. The device 712 may be analogous to the photodetector 212illustrated in FIG. 3A. As such, the device 712 may include an anode302, a cathode 304, a first substrate portion 312, a second substrateportion 314, a p-n junction (formed between a heavily doped p-side 322and a heavily doped n-side 324), guardring regions 332, and a protectivelayer 342. Each of the previously recited components may besubstantially the same or identical to the corresponding componentsshown and described with respect to FIG. 3A.

However, unlike the photodetector 212 illustrated in FIG. 3A, the device712 includes surface roughness 702 (e.g., corresponding to surfacedefects) on a bottom surface of the first substrate portion 312. Thesurface roughness 702 may be a modification applied to the firstsubstrate portion 312 during fabrication of the device 712 prior tocoupling the first substrate portion 312 to the anode 302. Additionallyor alternatively, in some embodiments, other surfaces (e.g., sidesurfaces or a top surface) of the first substrate portion 312 mayinclude roughness. Further, in addition to or instead of the firstsubstrate portion 312 including surface roughness 702, in someembodiments, the second substrate portion 314 may include surfaceroughness on one or more surfaces. Surface defects resulting fromsurface roughness may include topological defects, defects where atranslation symmetry of the surface is broken, adsorbates (e.g., sodiumor magnesium), interfaces with other materials, inconsistent grainboundaries, stacking faults, antiphase boundaries, or dangling bonds,for example.

FIG. 7B is a band diagram of the device 712 illustrated in FIG. 7A,according to example embodiments. The surface roughness 702 may generateone or more interfacial states and/or trap strates, as illustrated.These trap states may be accessed by minority carriers during a two-step(or multi-step) recombination process. Such recombination processes maybe alternative mechanisms by which minority carriers can recombine (inaddition to traditional recombination processes present in thesubstrate). As such, the probability of recombination of minoritycarriers may increase. Thus, minority carriers that are photoexcitedwithin the substrate may more readily recombine, thereby reducing thenumber of photoexcited minority carriers present in the substrate.Because of this, fewer minority carriers may ultimately reach the p-njunction, thereby mitigating the dark current arising from minoritycarriers photoexcited in the substrate. Said a different way, theminority carrier lifetime of photoexcited minority carriers may bereduced due to the interfacial and/or trap states. Correspondingly,based on the following relations, the diffusion length of the minoritycarriers may decrease, thereby reducing the number of minority carriersreaching the p-n junction:

L _(n)=√{square root over (D _(n)τ_(n))}

L _(p)=√{square root over (D _(p)τ_(p))}

where L_(n)/L_(p) represent minority carrier diffusion lengths,D_(n)/D_(p) represent minority carrier diffusion constants, andτ_(n)/τ_(p) represent minority carrier lifetimes.

In addition or instead of surface roughness 702, in some embodiments,the device 712 may include trap states within a bulk region of the firstsubstrate portion 312 and/or a bulk region of the second substrateportion 314. For example, gold, platinum, and/or or xenon may beincorporated into the device 712 to dope certain regions of the firstsubstrate portion 312 and/or the second substrate portion 314. Gold mayintroduce a donor level 0.35 eV above the valence band of thesurrounding silicon and/or an acceptor level 0.54 below the conductionband of the surrounding silicon, in example embodiments. Likewise,platinum may introduce a donor level 0.35 eV above the valence band ofthe surrounding silicon and/or an acceptor level 0.26 eV below theconduction band of the surrounding silicon, in example embodiments.Other dopant materials are possible and contemplated herein.

Additionally or alternatively, crystallographic defects that give riseto trap states may be present within the bulk region of the firstsubstrate portion 312 and/or the second substrate portion 314. Suchcrystallographic defects may include vacancy defects, interstitialdefects, Frenkel defects, antisite defects, substitutional defects, ortopological defects, for example. Further, such crystallographic defectsmay be created using ion implantation (e.g., without thermal annealingor with partial thermal annealing to control the extent of the damagewithout completely negating it). Alternatively, such crystallographicdefects may be inherently present within the bulk region of the firstsubstrate portion 312 (i.e., the first substrate portion 312 may be a“dirty substrate” region). In such embodiments, the second substrateportion 314 may then be epitaxially grown on the first substrate portion312 such that the second substrate portion 314 has far fewercrystallographic defects than the first substrate portion 312.

Analogously to the trap and/or interface states arising due to surfaceroughness 702, as described above, such intermediate states may reducethe minority carrier lifetime, thus reducing the minority carrierdiffusion length, which ultimately reduces the number of photoexcitedminority carriers that reach the p-n junction. Hence, trap states withinthe bulk region of the first substrate portion 312 and/or the secondsubstrate portion 314 may also be used to mitigate the dark currentarising from minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate.

The trap and/or interface states (whether introduced by crystallographicdefects, surface roughness, or other mechanisms) introduced into thesubstrate may be defined at a predetermined depth. The predetermineddepth may be determined based on a desired photon detection efficiencyand/or a desired diffusion profile for the minority carriers in thesubstrate. For example, the predetermined depth may be large enough(i.e., the trap and/or interface states may be located far enough fromthe p-n junction) such that the photon detection efficiency is notsubstantially adversely affected by the trap and/or interface states.Additionally or alternatively, the predetermined depth may be smallenough (i.e., the trap and/or interface states may be located closeenough to the p-n junction) such that the dark current arising from theminority carriers photoexcited in the substrate is sufficientlymitigated.

FIG. 8A is an illustration of a device 812, according to exampleembodiments. The device 812 may be analogous to the photodetector 212illustrated in FIG. 3A. As such, the device 812 may include an anode302, a cathode 304, a second substrate portion 314, a p-n junction(formed between a heavily doped p-side 322 and a heavily doped n-side324), guardring regions 332, and a protective layer 342. Each of thepreviously recited components may be substantially the same or identicalto the corresponding components shown and described with respect to FIG.3A.

However, unlike the photodetector 212 illustrated in FIG. 3A, the firstsubstrate portion 312 of the photodetector 212 may be replaced with aheterogeneous substrate portion 802. Unlike the first substrate portion312 in FIG. 3A, the heterogeneous substrate portion 802 in the device812 may be made of a different material than the other materials in thedevice 812. Particularly, the material of the heterogeneous substrateportion 802 may be different than the material of the second substrateportion 314. For example, if the second substrate portion 314, theheavily doped p-side 322, the heavily doped n-side 324, and theguardring regions 332 each include doped or undoped Si, theheterogeneous substrate portion 802 may include a differentsemiconductor material such as doped or undoped GaAs or doped or undopedGe. Other semiconductor materials besides GaAs and Ge are also possible.As such, both the device 812 and its corresponding band diagram includea heterostructure.

The different semiconductor material may be selected based on itsbandgap and/or based on the photon energy of the light being emittedfrom the light source, which is irradiating the device 812. In someembodiments, the different semiconductor material may be selected suchthat light of a given photon energy being emitted from the light sourcewill not be absorbed within the heterogeneous substrate portion 802(i.e., photoexcitation will not occur in the heterogeneous substrateportion 802). For example, if the light source is emitting infraredlight with a wavelength of 1.0 μm (corresponding to an energy of 1.24eV), that light may be readily absorbed by silicon, which has a bandgapof about 1.12 eV at 300 K. Hence, such light can cause photoexcitationin the second substrate portion 314, the heavily doped p-side 322, andthe heavily doped n-side 324 (assuming those regions are made ofsilicon). However, in order to prevent photoexcitation from occurringwithin the heterogeneous substrate portion 802, a material with abandgap of greater than 1.24 eV may be selected. For example, theheterogeneous substrate portion 802 may be made of GaAs (doped orundoped), which has a bandgap of about 1.424 eV at 300 K. In alternateembodiments, rather than GaAs, other semiconductor materials could beused (e.g., doped or undoped InP, doped or undoped GaP, doped or undopedCdSe, doped or undoped CdTe, doped or undoped ZnO, doped or undoped ZnS,etc.) or insulating materials could be used (e.g., Al₂O₃).

By including a material in the substrate (e.g., in the heterogeneoussubstrate portion 802) that does not absorb light emitted from the lightdetector (e.g., a material with a bandgap above the photon energy of thelight emitted from the light detector), photoexcitation can be preventedwithin the heterogeneous substrate portion 802. Preventingphotoexcitation of minority carriers within the substrate reduces thetotal number of photoexcited minority carriers across the entiresubstrate, thereby mitigating the dark current (e.g., the dark diffusioncurrent from the minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate) afteran illumination event. In addition, because minority carriers are notphotoexcited in the heterogeneous substrate portion 802, the maximumdistance from the p-n junction, and likewise the maximum depth of thedevice 812, at which photoexcitation can occur is decreased. In otherwords, each minority carrier that is photoexcited within the device 812is within a given distance of the p-n junction. This may limit thenumber of photoexcited minority carriers with long diffusion lengthsfrom meandering to the p-n junction (and resulting in output signal)substantially after an illumination event. In other words, this mayprovide another mechanism that limits the “long tail” of the detectioncurve by mitigating the dark current.

In alternate embodiments, one or more other portions of a device mayinclude a heterogeneous portion. For example, part or all of the secondsubstrate portion 314 may be replaced with materials that are differentfrom the material in the heavily doped p-side 322 and/or the heavilydoped n-side 324. Similarly, part or all of the p-n junction may bereplaced with materials that are different from the material in thesecond substrate portion 314.

FIG. 8B is a band diagram of the device 812 illustrated in FIG. 8A,according to example embodiments. For example, the band diagram of FIG.8B illustrates an embodiment where the second substrate portion 314, theheavily doped p-side 322, and the heavily doped n-side 324 each includesilicon with different dopants/doping concentrations and where theheterogeneous substrate portion 802 includes GaAs. As illustrated, thebandgap of the heterogeneous substrate portion 802 is larger than thebandgap of the second substrate portion 314, the heavily doped p-side322, and the heavily doped n-side 324.

Other ways of modifying the band diagram, in addition to or instead ofincorporating a heterostructure, may also serve to mitigate dark currentarising from minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate. Forexample, the p-n junction in a device may be designed to introduce anelectric field (e.g., based on a curvature of a conduction band orvalence band of the band structure) that extends farther down thejunction, wherein the electric field accelerates excess minoritycarriers moving towards the p-n junction. Hence, those excess minoritycarriers will move more quickly to the p-n junction, which will reducethe length of the “long tail” illustrated in FIG. 3B.

FIG. 9A is an illustration of a device 912, according to exampleembodiments. The device 912 may be analogous to the photodetector 212illustrated in FIG. 3A. As such, the device 912 may include an anode302, a cathode 304, a p-n junction (formed between a heavily dopedp-side 322 and a heavily doped n-side 324), guardring regions 332, and aprotective layer 342. Each of the previously recited components may besubstantially the same or identical to the corresponding componentsshown and described with respect to FIG. 3A.

However, unlike the photodetector 212 illustrated in FIG. 3A, instead ofthe first substrate portion 312 and the second substrate portion 314,the device 912 in FIG. 9A may include a graded substrate portion 902.The graded substrate portion 902 may be variably doped throughout. Forexample, the graded substrate portion 902 may be doped based on a dopingprofile that varies with respect to depth (x). The graded substrateportion 902 may include a single material, in some embodiments. In otherembodiments, the graded substrate portion 902 may include two or morematerials (i.e., the graded substrate portion 902 may be aheterostructure).

FIG. 9B is a band diagram of the device 912 illustrated in FIG. 9A,according an example embodiment of the device 912. For example, asillustrated in FIG. 9B, the graded substrate portion 902 may beheterostructured where the composition of the materials are varied(e.g., based on a material composition profile) with respect to depth.For example, the graded substrate portion 902 may include GaAs and GaSb(whereas the heavily doped p-side 322 and the heavily doped n-side 324may include silicon). GaAs may have a bandgap of about 1.424 eV at 300 Kand GaSb may have a band gap of about 0.68 eV at 300 K. The gradedsubstrate portion 902 may also include, as illustrated, hybrids that areGaAs_(z)Sb_(1-z), where z represents the proportion of the material thatis arsenide and 1−z represents the proportion of the material that isantimonide. It is understood that other materials (both single-materialstructures and heterostructures) are contemplated herein. For example,SiGe could be used.

As shown, a first portion 914 of the graded substrate portion 902nearest the heavily doped p-side 322 may be GaAs₁Sb₀ (i.e., GaAs), asecond portion 916 of the graded substrate portion 902 nearest a surfaceof the graded substrate portion 902 (e.g., a bottom surface of thegraded substrate portion 902) may also be GaAs₁Sb₀ (i.e., GaAs), and inan intermediate region 918 (e.g., nearer to the heavily doped p-side 322than the bottom side of the graded substrate portion 902) the gradedsubstrate portion 902 may be GaAs₀Sb₁ (i.e., GaSb). In between thosethree distinct regions, the arsenide and antimonide in the gradedsubstrate portion 902 is varied linearly. It is understood that othergradings with other materials (e.g., besides GaAs and GaSb) are alsopossible. Further, it is also understood that rather than a lineargrading profile, an exponential grading, logarithmic grading, or anyother type of grading profile could be used. Yet further, while binaryand ternary III-V semiconductor compounds are expressly recited herein,it will be understood that quaternary compounds and II-VI semiconductorcompounds are also contemplated and possible.

FIG. 9C is a plot of optical absorption with respect to depth of thedevice 912 illustrated in FIG. 9A having the band diagram illustrated inFIG. 9B, according to example embodiments. As shown, the gradedsubstrate portion 902 can be used define certain regions of highabsorption (e.g., relatively high photoexcitation of minority carriers),as well as certain regions of low absorption (e.g., relatively littlephotoexcitation of minority carriers).

Again, if a light source irradiating the device 912 is transmittinglight with a wavelength of 1 μm (corresponding to a photon energy of1.24 eV), the GaSb and some intermediate values of GaAs_(z)Sb_(1-z) maybe capable of absorbing that light, whereas the GaAs and some otherintermediate values of GaAs_(z)Sb_(1-z) might not be. Thus, in regionswith a narrow bandgap (e.g., regions having a higher Sb concentrationand a lower As concentration), more light absorption/photoexcitation ofminority carriers may occur. As such, the graded substrate portion 902can be used to define where and in what quantities minority carriers arebeing photoexcited in the substrate. As such, the overall number ofphotoexcited minority carriers can be reduced. Additionally, the regionsin which photoexcited minority carriers are excited can be limited to adistance that is close enough to the p-n junction such that the minoritycarriers will diffuse to the p-n junction within a reasonable time(e.g., thereby decreasing the time decay constant associated with eachillumination event). Both of these factors are mechanisms by which theuse of a graded substrate portion 902 can mitigate dark current arisingfrom minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate.

In addition to impacting absorption behavior, a graded substrate portion902 (both graded composition and graded doping) may influence driftcurrent and/or diffusion current toward or away from the p-n junction.As is understood, the graded substrate portion 902 thereby has anadditional mechanism to mitigate dark current arising from minoritycarriers photoexcited in the substrate.

FIG. 10 is an illustration of a device 1012, according to exampleembodiments. The device 1012 may be analogous to the photodetector 212illustrated in FIG. 3A. As such, the device 1012 may include may includea cathode 304, a first substrate portion 312, a second substrate portion314, a p-n junction (formed between a heavily doped p-side 322 and aheavily doped n-side 324), guardring regions 332, and a protective layer342. Each of the previously recited components may be substantially thesame or identical to the corresponding components shown and describedwith respect to FIG. 3A.

However, unlike the photodetector 212 illustrated in FIG. 3A, the device1012 may include a modified anode 1002 and polished/planarized surface1004. The modified anode 1002 may have a reduced size, as illustrated.Similar to the cathode 304, the modified anode 1002 may be sized suchthat light can be transmitted around the modified anode 1002. Unlike theanode 302 illustrated in FIG. 3A, which may completely cover an entirebottom surface of the first substrate portion 312, the modified anode1002 may only cover a portion of the bottom surface of the firstsubstrate portion 312.

The polished/planarized surface 1004 may be a surface of the firstsubstrate portion 312 that is polished and/or planarized. Thepolished/planarized surface 1004 may aid in shepherding photons thatpassed unabsorbed through the substrate out of the device 1012 (e.g.,may couple light passing through the substrate to an exterior of thedevice 1012). In other words, the polished/planarized surface 1004 mayprevent unabsorbed light from undergoing internal reflections (eitherfrom a surface of the substrate and/or a surface of an electrode), suchthat the light is not reflected back into the interior of the device1012. Because the polished/planarized surface 1004 reduces the amount oftime light is travelling through the substrate of the device 1012, thetime and distance over which optical absorption can occur is alsoreduced, thereby reducing the probability of photoexcitation and thetime scale over which photoexcitation occurs. Thus, the number ofminority carriers photoexcited in the substrate will be reduced overall.Because the number of photoexcited minority carriers is reduced, thedark current arising from such minority carriers may be mitigated. Insome embodiments, in addition to or instead of the polished/planarizedsurface 1004 being polished and/or planarized, other surfaces of thedevice 1012 (e.g., side surfaces of the first substrate portion 312) maybe polished and/or planarized.

FIG. 11A is a band diagram of a device having a potential barrier,according to example embodiments. The device may be similar to thephotodetector 212 illustrated in FIG. 3A, for example. However, thedoping profile of the second substrate portion in FIG. 11A may bedifferent than the doping profile of the second substrate portion 314 ofthe photodetector 212 (as illustrated in FIG. 3B). For example, in FIG.11A, the second substrate portion is not uniformly doped, unlike thesecond substrate portion 314 as illustrated in FIG. 3B.

As illustrated, a region of the second substrate portion in FIG. 11A isstrongly p-doped (e.g., p+-doped or p++-doped). This strongly p-dopedregion gives rise to a potential barrier 1102 within the band structureof FIG. 11A. Such a potential barrier 1102 may be configured to preventminority carriers from reaching a depletion region (e.g., within the p-njunction) of the device due to diffusion. A barrier thicknesscorresponding to the potential barrier 1102 may be at least 1 nm thick,at least 10 nm thick, or at least 100 nm thick, in various embodiments.

The conduction band of the potential barrier 1102 may be separated from(e.g., lie above) the conduction band of the surrounding bulk substrateby a positive energy offset 1104. Similarly, the valence band of thepotential barrier 1102 may be separated from (e.g., lie above) thevalence band of the surrounding bulk substrate by the positive energyoffset 1104. The positive energy offset 1104 could have a value of atleast 0.01 times the band gap of the bulk substrate, at least 0.05 timesthe band gap of the bulk substrate, at least 0.1 times the band gap ofthe bulk substrate, at least 0.15 times the band gap of the bulksubstrate, at least 0.2 times the band gap of the bulk substrate, atleast 0.25 times the band gap of the bulk substrate, at least 0.5 timesthe band gap of the bulk substrate, at least 0.75 times the band gap ofthe bulk substrate, or at least 1.0 times the band gap of the bulksubstrate, in various embodiments. In example embodiments where the bulksubstrate is made of silicon, this may correspond to at least 0.28 eV,at least 0.56 eV, at least 0.84 eV, or at least 1.12 eV, respectively,at 300 K. In alternate embodiments (e.g., embodiments where the bulksubstrate is primarily n-type, rather than p-type), the positive energyoffset 1104 of the potential barrier 1102 may be larger.

FIG. 11B is a band diagram of a device having a potential well,according to example embodiments. The device may be similar to thephotodetector 212 illustrated in FIG. 3A, for example. However, thedoping profile of the second substrate portion in FIG. 11B may bedifferent than the doping profile of the second substrate portion 314 ofthe photodetector 212 (as illustrated in FIG. 3B). For example, in FIG.11B, the second substrate portion is not uniformly doped, unlike thesecond substrate portion 314 as illustrated in FIG. 3B.

As illustrated, a region of the second substrate portion in FIG. 11B isstrongly n-doped (e.g., n+-doped or n++-doped). This strongly n-dopedregion gives rise to a potential well 1106 within the band structure ofFIG. 11B. Such a potential well 1106 may be configured to preventminority carriers from reaching a depletion region (e.g., within the p-njunction) of the device due to diffusion. A well thickness correspondingto the potential well 1106 may be at least 1 nm thick, at least 10 nmthick, or at least 100 nm thick, in various embodiments.

The conduction band of the potential well 1106 may be separated from(e.g., lie below) the conduction band of the surrounding bulk substrateby a negative energy offset 1108. Similarly, the valence band of thepotential well 1106 may be separated from (e.g., lie below) the valenceband of the surrounding bulk substrate by the negative energy offset1108. The negative energy offset 1108 could have a value of at least0.01 times the band gap of the bulk substrate, at least 0.05 times theband gap of the bulk substrate, at least 0.1 times the band gap of thebulk substrate, at least 0.15 times the band gap of the bulk substrate,at least 0.2 times the band gap of the bulk substrate, at least 0.25times the band gap of the bulk substrate, at least 0.5 times the bandgap of the bulk substrate, at least 0.75 times the band gap of the bulksubstrate, or at least 1.0 times the band gap of the bulk substrate, invarious embodiments. In example embodiments where the bulk substrate ismade of silicon, this may correspond to at least 0.28 eV, at least 0.56eV, at least 0.84 eV, or at least 1.12 eV, respectively, at 300 K. Inalternate embodiments (e.g., embodiments where the bulk substrate isprimarily n-type, rather than p-type), the negative energy offset 1108of the potential barrier 1102 may be smaller.

IV. EXAMPLE PROCESSES

FIG. 12 is a flowchart diagram of a method 1200, according to exampleembodiments.

At block 1202, the method 1200 includes providing a device including asubstrate and a photodetector coupled to the substrate. Thephotodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a light sourcethat irradiates a top surface of the device.

At block 1204, the method 1200 includes providing light from the lightsource.

At block 1206, the method 1200 includes mitigating dark current arisingfrom minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the lightemitted from the light source. In some embodiments, mitigating the darkcurrent may include providing light from the light source such that thelight from the light source irradiates a bottom surface of the device(e.g., in embodiments where the device is flip-chip bonded to a ROIC).This may allow for a device with a thinner substrate to be used, whichwould reduce an amount of photoexcited minority carriers in thesubstrate, thereby reducing the number of minority carriers that reachthe p-n junction after the illumination event.

Additionally or alternatively, mitigating the dark current may includemodifying an operating temperature of the device. Modifying theoperating temperature of the device may mitigate the dark current bymodifying the diffusion length of minority carriers within the substrate(e.g., minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate). The diffusionlength of minority carriers is dependent on minority carrier diffusionconstant (D_(n)/D_(p)) and minority carrier lifetime (τ_(n)/τ_(p)), asdescribed above. Minority carrier diffusion constant can be defined bythe following relations (i.e., the Einstein relations):

${D_{n} = \frac{\mu_{n}kT}{q}}{D_{p} = \frac{\mu_{p}kT}{q}}$

where μ_(n)/μ_(p) are the minority carrier mobilities, k is Boltzmann'sconstant, T is the absolute temperature, and q is the electrical chargeof the minority carrier. Further, minority carrier mobility, itself, istemperature dependent. In general, minority carrier mobility decreaseswith increasing temperature, and in a fashion that overcompensates forthe linear temperature factor in the equation above. Hence, in general,minority carrier diffusion constant decreases with increasingtemperature. Thus, modifying the operating temperature to mitigate thedark current may include increasing the operating temperature of thedevice, thereby reducing the minority carrier diffusion constant and, inturn, reducing the minority carrier diffusion length. If the diffusionlength is decreased, the number of minority carriers photoexcited in thesubstrate that can ultimately reach the p-n junction is reduced, therebyreducing the “long tail” of the illumination event.

Still further, in some embodiments, mitigating the dark current mayinclude modulating a wavelength of the light emitted from the lightsource. For example, modulating the wavelength may include increasingthe wavelength of the light emitted. Increasing the wavelength of thelight emitted may correspond to a reduction in the associated photonenergy of the light emitted. If the associated photon energy is reduced,the amount of light absorbed in the substrate may be reduced oreliminated (e.g., if the bandgap of the substrate material is greaterthan the photon energy of the light emitted). If the amount of lightabsorbed in the substrate is reduced or eliminated, the number ofphotoexcited minority carriers may be reduced or eliminated. Reducingthe number of minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate may reducethe number of minority carriers that diffuse to the p-n junction afteran illumination event, thereby reducing the “long tail” of theillumination event.

Alternatively, modulating the wavelength may include decreasing thewavelength of the light emitted. Decreasing the wavelength of the lightemitted may reduce the depth into the substrate that the photonspenetrate before being absorbed (e.g., the absorption depth in siliconmay be around 100 μm for wavelengths around 1 μm whereas the absorptiondepth in silicon may only be around 100 nm for wavelengths around 400nm). By decreasing the absorption depth of the emitted light, the numberof minority carriers that are photoexcited within the substraterelatively far from the p-n junction (e.g., far enough from the p-njunction that they take an extended time to diffuse to the p-n junction)may be reduced or eliminated. If the amount of minority carriersphotoexcited within the substrate relative far from the p-n junction isreduced or eliminated, the number of photoexcited minority carriers thatreach the p-n junction significantly after an illumination event may bereduced or eliminated, thereby reducing the “long tail” of theillumination event.

In addition, mitigating the dark current may include modulating a powerof the light emitted from the light source. Modulating the power of thelight emitted from the light source may include reducing the power ofthe light from the light source. Reducing the power of the light fromthe light source may correspond to fewer photons irradiating the device.By reducing the number of photons irradiating the device, the number ofphotons that are transmitted to the substrate may be reduced in turn.Such a reduction of photons transmitted to the substrate may reduceabsorption in the substrate, thereby reducing the amount of minoritycarriers photoexcited in the substrate. Reducing the number of minoritycarriers photoexcited in the substrate may reduce the number of minoritycarriers that diffuse to the p-n junction after an illumination event,thereby reducing the “long tail” of the illumination event.

Even further, mitigating the dark current may include modulating a pulsefrequency or duty cycle of the light emitted from the light source. Insome embodiments, modulating a pulse frequency or duty cycle of thelight emitted from the light source may include switching from acontinuous-wave (CW) operating mode to a pulsed operating mode.Similarly, modulating a pulse frequency or duty cycle of the lightemitted from the light source may include swapping a CW light source fora pulsed light source. Additionally or alternatively, modulating thepulse frequency of the light emitted from the light source may includereducing the pulse frequency of the light emitted from the light source.Similarly, modulating the duty cycle of the light emitted from the lightsource may include reducing the duty cycle of the light emitted from thelight source. Reducing the pulse frequency or reducing the duty cycle ofthe light emitted from the light source may correspond to fewer photonsirradiating the device. By reducing the number of photons irradiatingthe device, the number of photons that are transmitted to the substratemay be reduced in turn. Such a reduction of photons transmitted to thesubstrate may reduce absorption in the substrate, thereby reducing theamount of minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate. Reducing thenumber of minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate may reduce thenumber of minority carriers that diffuse to the p-n junction after anillumination event, thereby reducing the “long tail” of the illuminationevent.

FIG. 13 is a flowchart diagram of a method of manufacture 1300,according to example embodiments.

At block 1302, the method of manufacture 1300 includes providing asubstrate.

At block 1304, the method of manufacture 1300 includes forming aphotodetector within or on the substrate. The photodetector is arrangedto detect light emitted from a light source that irradiates a topsurface of the photodetector.

At block 1306, the method of manufacture 1300 includes performing aprocessing step that mitigates dark current arising from minoritycarriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted fromthe light source. In some embodiments, performing the processing stepthat mitigates dark current may include thinning the substrate byremoving a portion of the substrate, thereby reducing a depth of thesubstrate to less than or equal to 100 times a diffusion length of aminority carrier within the substrate. Further, performing theprocessing step that mitigates dark current may include producingcrystallographic defects within the substrate that allow forrecombination of electrons and holes (e.g., through trap-assistedrecombination at trap states).

Additionally or alternatively, performing the processing step thatmitigates dark current may include defining a band structure based on amaterial composition of the substrate and the photodetector. In suchembodiments, the band structure may induce an electric field thatextends beyond a depletion region of the photodetector based on acurvature of a conduction band or a valence band of the band structurebeyond the depletion region of the photodetector. Such an electric fieldmay be configured to induce a drift current that accelerates minoritycarriers toward the depletion region of the photodetector when minoritycarriers are photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emittedfrom the light source. For example, the p-n junction in a device may bedesigned to introduce an electric field that extends farther down thejunction, wherein the electric field accelerates excess minoritycarriers moving towards the p-n junction.

In some embodiments, the band structure may include a potential barrierconfigured to prevent minority carriers photoexcited in the substratefrom reaching a depletion region of the photodetector due to diffusion.Such a barrier thickness corresponding to the potential barrier may beat least 1 nm thick, at least 10 nm thick, or at least 100 nm thick, invarious embodiments. Further, the potential barrier may include: aconduction band energy that is at least 0.01 times the band gap of thesubstrate above a conduction band energy of the band structure of thesubstrate surrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energythat is at least 0.05 times the band gap of the substrate above aconduction band energy of the band structure of the substratesurrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energy that is atleast 0.1 times the band gap of the substrate above a conduction bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialbarrier, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.15 times the bandgap of the substrate above a conduction band energy of the bandstructure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, aconduction band energy that is at least 0.2 times the band gap of thesubstrate above a conduction band energy of the band structure of thesubstrate surrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energythat is at least 0.25 times the band gap of the substrate above aconduction band energy of the band structure of the substratesurrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energy that is atleast 0.5 times the band gap of the substrate above the conduction bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialbarrier, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.75 times the bandgap of the substrate above the conduction band energy of the bandstructure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, aconduction band energy that is at least 1.0 times the band gap of thesubstrate above the conduction band energy of the band structure of thesubstrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energy thatis at least 0.01 times the band gap of the substrate above a valenceband energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding thepotential barrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.05 times theband gap of the substrate above a valence band energy of the bandstructure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valenceband energy that is at least 0.1 times the band gap of the substrateabove a valence band energy of the band structure of the substratesurrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energy that is atleast 0.15 times the band gap of the substrate above a valence bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialbarrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.2 times the band gapof the substrate above a valence band energy of the band structure ofthe substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energythat is at least 0.25 times the band gap of the substrate above avalence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surroundingthe potential barrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.5 timesthe band gap of the substrate above the valence band energy of the bandstructure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valenceband energy that is at least 0.75 times the band gap of the substrateabove the valence band energy of the band structure of the substratesurrounding the potential barrier, or a valence band energy that is atleast 1.0 times the band gap of the substrate above the valence bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialbarrier.

In addition to or instead of a potential barrier, the band structure mayinclude a potential well (e.g., separated from a potential barrier by aspecified distance) configured to prevent minority carriers photoexcitedin the substrate from reaching a depletion region of the photodetectordue to diffusion. Such a well thickness corresponding to the potentialwell may be at least 1 nm thick, at least 10 nm thick, or at least 100nm thick, in various embodiments. Further, the potential well mayinclude: a conduction band energy that is at least 0.01 times the bandgap of the substrate below a conduction band energy of the bandstructure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a conductionband energy that is at least 0.05 times the band gap of the substratebelow a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substratesurrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is atleast 0.1 times the band gap of the substrate below a conduction bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialwell, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.15 times the band gapof the substrate below a conduction band energy of the band structure ofthe substrate surrounding the potential well, a conduction band energythat is at least 0.2 times the band gap of the substrate below aconduction band energy of the band structure of the substratesurrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is atleast 0.25 times the band gap of the substrate below a conduction bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialwell, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.5 times the band gapof the substrate below the conduction band energy of the band structureof the substrate surrounding the potential well, a conduction bandenergy that is at least 0.75 times the band gap of the substrate belowthe conduction band energy of the band structure of the substratesurrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is atleast 1.0 times the band gap of the substrate below the conduction bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialwell, a valence band energy that is at least 0.01 times the band gap ofthe substrate below a valence band energy of the band structure of thesubstrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that isat least 0.05 times the band gap of the substrate below a valence bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialwell, a valence band energy that is at least 0.1 times the band gap ofthe substrate below a valence band energy of the band structure of thesubstrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that isat least 0.15 times the band gap of the substrate below a valence bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialwell, a valence band energy that is at least 0.2 times the band gap ofthe substrate below a valence band energy of the band structure of thesubstrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that isat least 0.25 times the band gap of the substrate below a valence bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialwell, a valence band energy that is at least 0.5 times the band gap ofthe substrate below the valence band energy of the band structure of thesubstrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that isat least 0.75 times the band gap of the substrate below the valence bandenergy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potentialwell, or a valence band energy that is at least 1.0 times the band gapof the substrate below the valence band energy of the band structure ofthe substrate surrounding the potential well.

In still other embodiments, the substrate may include two or morematerials. As such, the band structure may include a heterostructure.The heterostructure may include a first material with a band gap largerthan a photon energy associated with the light emitted from the lightsource. Further, the first material may be present within the substrateat a first depth within the substrate to define a maximum absorptiondepth for the light emitted from the light source.

In some embodiments, block 1306 of the method 1300 may include couplingan anti-reflective layer to a second surface of the substrate (e.g., asurface of the substrate opposite the top surface of the device and/oropposite a top surface of the substrate). The anti-reflective layer maybe configured to couple light passing through the substrate to anexterior of the substrate, thereby preventing reflections within thesubstrate of the light emitted from the light source so as to reducephotoexcitation of minority carriers within the substrate. Theanti-reflective layer may include a graded-index anti-reflectivecoating, a quarter-wave optical layer, a Bragg grating, a diffractiongrating, or an index-matched, passive substrate.

In yet other embodiments, block 1306 of the method 1300 may includepolishing or planarizing a second surface of the substrate (e.g., asurface of the substrate opposite the top surface of the device and/oropposite a top surface of the substrate), thereby preventing reflectionswithin the substrate of the light emitted from the light source so as toreduce photoexcitation of minority carriers within the substrate.

In still yet other embodiments, block 1306 of the method 1300 mayinclude applying a band-reject optical filter over the top surface ofthe photodetector, thereby configuring the photodetector such that lightemitted from the light source irradiates the photodetector through theband-reject optical filter. The band-reject optical filter may beconfigured to reduce intensity of one or more wavelengths (e.g., a rangeof wavelengths) of the light emitted from the light source, so as toreduce photoexcitation of minority carriers in the substrate based onthe light emitted from the light source.

In even further embodiments, block 1306 of the method 1300 may includeflip-chip bonding the substrate and the photodetector to one or moreelectrodes used to bias the photodetector such that the photodetector isarranged to detect light from the light source that irradiates a secondsurface of the substrate (e.g., a surface of the substrate opposite thetop surface of the photodetector and/or opposite a top surface of thesubstrate). Additionally or alternatively, the substrate and thephotodetector may be flip-chip bonded to one or more ROICs such that thephotodetector is arranged to detect light from the light source thatirradiates a second surface of the substrate (e.g., a surface of thesubstrate opposite the top surface of the photodetector and/or oppositea top surface of the substrate).

In some embodiments, the method 1300 may also include forming anadditional photodetector within or on the substrate and electricallyconnecting the additional photodetector in series with thephotodetector. The additional photodetector may be arranged to detectlight emitted from the light source that irradiates a top surface of theadditional photodetector.

Additionally, in various embodiments of the method 1300, one or moreregions of the photodetector and/or the substrate may be defined usinglithography. For example, one or more regions of the photodetectorand/or the substrate may be defined using e-beam lithography,photolithography, nanoimprint lithography, interference lithography,chemical lithography, X-ray lithography, extreme ultravioletlithography, dip-pen nanolithography, magnetolithography, or scanningprobe lithography. Additionally or alternatively, one or more regions ofthe photodetector and/or the substrate may be defined using additivemanufacturing (i.e., three-dimensional (3D) printing orstereolithography). Other additive or subtractive techniques couldadditionally or alternatively be used.

V. CONCLUSION

Multiple strategies of mitigating dark current are individually hereinshown and described. It is understood that each strategy (e.g., method,device, or system) described herein could be combined with otherstrategies (e.g., methods, devices, or systems) described elsewhere orherein. Such combinations could be concurrently employed to furthermitigate dark current, for example. In addition, it is understood that,in systems including multiple devices (e.g., multiple photodetectors,such as APDs, serially connected in a detector array, such as a SiPM), asingle device may be modified to mitigate dark current, a plurality ofdevices may be modified to mitigate dark current, or all devices may bemodified to mitigate dark current.

Further, many of the techniques of mitigating dark current in thepresent disclosure are shown and described with reference tophotodetectors that include p-n junctions. It is also understood that atleast some of the techniques could be applied to mitigate dark currentin non-p-n-junction photodetectors. Even further, some of the techniquesherein shown and described could be used to mitigate time decay forlight detection in non-semiconductor photodetectors.

The present disclosure is not to be limited in terms of the particularembodiments described in this application, which are intended asillustrations of various aspects. Many modifications and variations canbe made without departing from its spirit and scope, as will be apparentto those skilled in the art. Functionally equivalent methods andapparatuses within the scope of the disclosure, in addition to thoseenumerated herein, will be apparent to those skilled in the art from theforegoing descriptions. Such modifications and variations are intendedto fall within the scope of the appended claims.

The above detailed description describes various features and functionsof the disclosed systems, devices, and methods with reference to theaccompanying figures. In the Figures, similar symbols typically identifysimilar components, unless context dictates otherwise. The exampleembodiments described herein and in the Figures are not meant to belimiting. Other embodiments can be utilized, and other changes can bemade, without departing from the spirit or scope of the subject matterpresented herein. It will be readily understood that the aspects of thepresent disclosure, as generally described herein, and illustrated inthe Figures, can be arranged, substituted, combined, separated, anddesigned in a wide variety of different configurations, all of which areexplicitly contemplated herein.

The particular arrangements shown in the Figures should not be viewed aslimiting. It should be understood that other embodiments can includemore or less of each element shown in a given Figure. Further, some ofthe illustrated elements can be combined or omitted. Yet further, anexample embodiment can include elements that are not illustrated in theFigures.

While various aspects and embodiments have been disclosed herein, otheraspects and embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art.The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are for purposes ofillustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scopebeing indicated by the following claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A device comprising: a substrate; and a photodetector coupled to the substrate, wherein the photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a light source that irradiates a top surface of the device, wherein the substrate comprises surface defects on a second surface of the substrate, and wherein the surface defects allow for recombination of electrons and holes so as to mitigate dark current arising from minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted from the light source.
 2. The device of claim 1, wherein at least one of the surface defects comprises a topological defect, a defect where a translation symmetry of the second surface is broken, an adsorbate, an interface with another material, an inconsistent grain boundary, a stacking fault, an antiphase boundary, or a dangling bond.
 3. The device of claim 1, further comprising an additional photodetector coupled to the substrate, wherein the additional photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from the light source that irradiates the top surface of the device and is electrically connected in series with the photodetector.
 4. A device comprising: a substrate; and a photodetector coupled to the substrate, wherein the photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a light source that irradiates a top surface of the device, and wherein the substrate comprises crystallographic defects that allow for recombination of electrons and holes so as to mitigate dark current arising from minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted from the light source.
 5. The device of claim 4, further comprising an additional photodetector coupled to the substrate, wherein the additional photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from the light source that irradiates the top surface of the device and is electrically connected in series with the photodetector.
 6. The device of claim 4, wherein the crystallographic defects comprise vacancy defects, interstitial defects, Frenkel defects, antisite defects, substitutional defects, or topological defects.
 7. A device comprising: a substrate; and a photodetector coupled to the substrate, wherein the photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from a light source that irradiates a top surface of the device, wherein the device has a band structure based on a material composition of the substrate and the photodetector, and wherein the band structure is configured to mitigate dark current arising from minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted from the light source.
 8. The device of claim 7, further comprising an additional photodetector coupled to the substrate, wherein the additional photodetector is arranged to detect light emitted from the light source that irradiates a top surface of the device and is electrically connected in series with the photodetector, and wherein the band structure is based on a material composition of the additional photodetector.
 9. The device of claim 7, wherein the band structure induces an electric field that extends beyond a depletion region of the photodetector based on a curvature of a conduction band or a valence band of the band structure beyond the depletion region of the photodetector, and wherein the electric field is configured to induce a drift current that accelerates minority carriers toward the depletion region of the photodetector when minority carriers are photoexcited in the substrate based on the light emitted from the light source.
 10. The device of claim 7, wherein the band structure comprises a potential barrier, and wherein the potential barrier is configured to prevent minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate from reaching a depletion region of the photodetector due to diffusion.
 11. The device of claim 10, wherein a barrier thickness corresponding with the potential barrier is at least 1 nm thick, at least 10 nm thick, or at least 100 nm thick.
 12. The device of claim 10, wherein the substrate comprises a band gap, wherein the potential barrier comprises a conduction band energy that is at least 0.01 times the band gap of the substrate above a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.05 times the band gap of the substrate above a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.1 times the band gap of the substrate above a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.15 times the band gap of the substrate above a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.2 times the band gap of the substrate above a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.25 times the band gap of the substrate above a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.5 times the band gap of the substrate above the conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.75 times the band gap of the substrate above the conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a conduction band energy that is at least 1.0 times the band gap of the substrate above the conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.01 times the band gap of the substrate above a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.05 times the band gap of the substrate above a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.1 times the band gap of the substrate above a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.15 times the band gap of the substrate above a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.2 times the band gap of the substrate above a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.25 times the band gap of the substrate above a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.5 times the band gap of the substrate above the valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, a valence band energy that is at least 0.75 times the band gap of the substrate above the valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier, or a valence band energy that is at least 1.0 times the band gap of the substrate above the valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential barrier.
 13. The device of claim 7, wherein the band structure comprises a potential well, and wherein the potential well is configured to prevent minority carriers photoexcited in the substrate from reaching a depletion region of the photodetector due to diffusion.
 14. The device of claim 13, wherein a well thickness corresponding to the potential well is at least 1 nm thick, at least 10 nm thick, or at least 100 nm thick.
 15. The device of claim 13, wherein the substrate comprises a band gap, wherein the potential well comprises a conduction band energy that is at least 0.01 times the band gap of the substrate below a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.05 times the band gap of the substrate below a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.1 times the band gap of the substrate below a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.15 times the band gap of the substrate below a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.2 times the band gap of the substrate below a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.25 times the band gap of the substrate below a conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.5 times the band gap of the substrate below the conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is at least 0.75 times the band gap of the substrate below the conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a conduction band energy that is at least 1.0 times the band gap of the substrate below the conduction band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that is at least 0.01 times the band gap of the substrate below a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that is at least 0.05 times the band gap of the substrate below a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that is at least 0.1 times the band gap of the substrate below a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that is at least 0.15 times the band gap of the substrate below a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that is at least 0.2 times the band gap of the substrate below a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that is at least 0.25 times the band gap of the substrate below a valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that is at least 0.5 times the band gap of the substrate below the valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, a valence band energy that is at least 0.75 times the band gap of the substrate below the valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well, or a valence band energy that is at least 1.0 times the band gap of the substrate below the valence band energy of the band structure of the substrate surrounding the potential well.
 16. The device of claim 7, wherein the substrate comprises two or more materials, wherein the band structure comprises a heterostructure, wherein the heterostructure comprises a first material with a band gap larger than a photon energy associated with the light emitted from the light source, and wherein the first material is present within the substrate at a first depth within the substrate to define a maximum absorption depth for the light emitted from the light source. 